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Whales and Wombats, Etc: Cuvier

We shall not, however, dwell at any length on the scenery, or the vegetation that clothed the landscape at different periods; for these features are sufficiently indicated in the beautiful drawings of extinct animals by our artists, Mr. J. Smit, and others. The researches of the illustrious Baron Cuvier, at Paris, as embodied in his great work, Ossemens Fossiles, gave a great impetus to the study of organic remains. It was he who laid the foundations of the science of Paleontology,¹ which, though much has already been accomplished, yet has a great future before it. Agassiz, Owen, Huxley, Marsh, Cope, and others, following in his footsteps, have greatly extended its boundaries; but he was the pioneer.

Before Cuvier's time fossil forms were very little known, and still less understood. His researches, especially among vertebrates, or backboned animals, revealed an altogether undreamed-of wealth of entombed remains. It is true, the old and absurd notion that 1 Palæontology is the science which treats of the living beings, whether animal or vegetable, which have inhabited this globe at past periods in its history. (Greek-palaios, ancient; onta, beings; logos, discourse.) C fossils were mere "sports of Nature," sometimes bearing more or less resemblance to living animals, but still only an accidental (!) resemblance, had been abandoned by Leibnitz, Buffon, and Pallas; and that Daubenton had actually compared the fossil bones of quadrupeds with those of living forms; while Camper declared his opinion that some of these remains belonged to extinct species of quadrupeds.

It is to Cuvier, however, that the world owes the first systematic application of the science of comparative anatomy, which he himself had done so much to place on a sound basis, to the study of the bones of fossil animals. He paid great attention to the relative shapes of animals, and the different developments of the same kind of bones in various animals, and especially to the nature of their teeth. So great did his experience and knowledge become, that he rarely failed in naming an animal from a part of its skeleton. He appreciated more clearly than others before him the mutual dependence of the various parts of an animal's organisation. "The organism," he said, "forms a connected unity, in which the single parts cannot change without modifications in the other parts."

It will hardly be necessary to give examples of this now wellknown truth; but, just to take one case: the elephant has a long proboscis with which it can reach the ground, and consequently its neck is quite short; but take away the long proboscis, and you would seriously interfere with the relation of various parts of its structure to each other. How, then, could it reach or pick up anything lying on the ground? Other changes would have to follow: either its legs would require to be shortened, or its neck to be lengthened. In every animal, as in a complex machine, there is a mutual dependence of the different parts.

J INTRODUCTION As he progressed in these studies, Cuvier was able with considerable success to restore extinct animals from their fossilised remains, to discover their habits and manner of life, and to point out their nearest living ally. To him we owe the first complete demonstration of the possibility of restoring an extinct animal. His "Law of Correlation" however, has been found to be not infallible; as Professor Huxley has shown, it has exceptions. It expresses our experience among living animals, but, when applied to the more ancient types of life, is liable to be misleading. To take one out of many examples of this law: Carnivorous animals, such as cats, lions, and tigers, have claws in their feet, very different from the hoofs of an ox, which is herbivorous : while the teeth of the former group are very different from those of the latter. Thus the teeth and limbs have a certain definite relation to each other, or, in other words, are correlated. Again, horned quadrupeds are all herbivorous (or graminivorous), and have hoofs to their feet. The following amusing anecdote serves to illustrate Cuvier's law. One of his students thought he would try and frighten his master, and, having dressed up as a wild beast, entered Cuvier's bedroom by night, and, presenting himself by his bedside, said in hollow tones, "Cuvier, Cuvier, I've come to eat you!" The great naturalist, who on waking up was able to discern something with horns and hoofs, simply remarked, "What! horns, hoofs-graminivorous-you can't!" What better lesson could the master have given the pupil to help him to remember his "Law of Correlation"?

Cuvier's great work, entitled Ossemens Fossiles, will long remain an imperishable monument of the genius and industry of the greatest pioneer in this region of investigation. This work proved beyond a doubt to his astonished contemporaries the great antiquity of the tribes of animals now living on the surface of the earth. It proved more than that, however; for it showed the existence of a great philosophy in Nature which linked the past with the present in a scheme that pointed to a continuity of life during untold previous ages. All this was directly at variance with the prevalent ideas of his time, and consequently his views were regarded by many with alarm, and he received a good deal of abuse-a fate which many other original thinkers before him have shared.

It is somewhat difficult for people living now, and accustomed to modern teaching, to realise how novel were the conclusions announced by Cuvier. In his Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe, translated into most European languages under the title Theory of the Earth, he lays down, among others, the two following propositions :- 1. That all organised existences were not created at the same time; but at different times, probably very remote from each other-vegetables before animals, mollusca and fishes before reptiles, and the latter before mammals. 2. That fossil remains in the more recent strata are those which approach nearest to the present type of corresponding living species. Teaching such as this gave a new impetus to the study of organic remains, and Palæontology, as a science, began with Cuvier. The reader is recommended to study Chapters X. and XI. of Darwin's Origin of Species, dealing with the imperfection of the record, distribution, and extinction of species, etc. One object which the writer has kept in view all through is to show how strong is the evidence for Evolution. In fact, it is overwhelming; consequently in these days one seldom meets a naturalist or a geologist who does not accept the idea of Evolution. But when people speak of "Darwinism" they do not 8 INTRODUCTION always clearly distinguish in their minds between Evolution and the means by which evolutionary changes have been brought about. Darwin tried to prove that the great agency (so long sought for in vain) was Natural Selection. Hence some people mean Natural Selection when they speak of Darwinism. Since Darwin's death in the year 1882 a great many naturalists and others have pondered deeply on this great subject; new facts and new conceptions have arisen on the question of the Origin of Species. Some of our readers may perhaps think that Darwin settled the question once for all. But that is not so. True, there is a powerful school of naturalists (Neo-Darwinians) who never weary of telling us that Natural Selection is the great and principal cause, or agency, whereby new species arose. On the other hand, there are many living naturalists of renown who are unwilling to accept Darwin's explanation. Moreover, to some minds such an explanation is far too mechanical, involving a narrow view of the beauties and wonders of Creation, as if Utility were the principal thing. Again, it is possible that the struggle between individuals of the same or near species is not so great as the Darwinian conception demanded. Darwin's argument was largely based on the analogy of the sort of selection used by breeders of plants and domestic animals. It now appears that this analogy is not quite safe. Some naturalists believe that the great progress Man has made in breeding pigeons, cattle, horses, dogs, and flowers may all be based on definite and sudden changes, now known as "Mutations" (sports). Mendel's Law was unknown to Darwin, and the striking suggestions of De Vries had not appeared in his day. In conclusion, it only remains to say (for our space is limited) that at present the great problem is unsolved. Perhaps the time is hardly ripe.

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