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The Therapeutic Use of Precious Stones
THE medicinal use of precious stones may be traced back to very ancient times. It has been conjectured that their employment for such purposes was introduced to Europe from India, whence many of the stones were derived. Nevertheless, the earliest evidence we have rather points to Egypt as the source, and, indeed, it appears that in early Egyptian times the chemical constituents of the stones were much more rationally considered than at a later period in Europe. The Ebers Papyrus, for instance, recommends the use of certain astringent substances, such as lapis-lazuli, as ingredients of eye-salves, and hematite, an iron oxide, was used for checking hemorrhages and for reducing inflammations. Little by little, however, superstition associated certain special virtues with the color and quality of precious stones, and their virtues were thought to be greatly enhanced by engraving on them the image of some god, or of some object symbolizing certain of the activities of nature. Later still, the science of astrology, most highly developed in Assyria and Babylonia, was brought into combination with the various superstitions above indicated, so that the image was believed to have much greater efficacy if the engraving were executed when the sun was in a certain constellation or when the moon or some one of the planets was in the ascendant at the time. If we exclude certain fragmentary notices in Egyptian literature-notably the statements in the Ebers Papyrus-and the very uncertain sources in Hindu literature, the earliest authority for this branch of the subject is the Natural History of Pliny. In this connection, however, it is only just to call attention to a fact which has been often ignored-namely, that Pliny himself had very little faith in the teachings of the "magi," as he calls them, in regard to the superstitious use of gems for the prevention or cure of diseases; indeed, he seems to have been almost as sceptical in his attitude as many modern writers, for certain quite recent authorities still credit amber and a few other mineral substances with therapeutic effects other than those which can be explained by the known action of their chemical constituents. Still, Pliny yielded so far to the taste of his time as to preserve for us many of the statements of earlier writers on the subject, naming them in most cases and so enabling us to form some idea of the character of this pseudo-science in the Roman world in the first century of our era. With the gradual decay of ancient learning, the less valuable elements of popular belief came more and more into the foreground, and the old superstitions were freely copied by successive authors, each of whom felt called upon to add something new on his own account. This explains much of the confusion that reigns in regard to the attribution of special virtues to the different stones, for the wider the reading of the author the greater became the number of virtues attributed to each separate stone, until, at last, we might almost say that each and every precious stone could be used for the cure of ad diseases. Nevertheless, it is comparatively easy to see that either the color or constitution of the stone originally indicated its use for this or that disease.
A distinction is often made between the talismanic qualities of precious stones for the cure or prevention of disease and the properly medicinal use of them as mineral substances. In the former case the effect was attained by merely wearing them on the person, while in the latter case they were reduced to a powder, which was dissolved as far as possible in water or some other liquid and then taken internally. As, however, the end to be attained is the same whether the stone be worn or taken internally as a powder or liquid, it seems more logical to treat of both these methods of therapeutic use together, reserving for the chapter on the talismanic use of gems only their employment to avert misfortunes other than those caused by disease, and their influence in the procuring of wealth, honors, and happiness for their wearers. The belief in the curative properties of precious stones was at one time universal among all those to whom gems were known. When we read to-day of the various ills that were supposed to be cured by the use of these gems, we find it difficult to understand what process of thought could have suggested the idea of employing such ineffectual remedies. It is true that the constituents of certain stones can be absorbed by the human body and have a definite effect upon it, but the greater part of the elements are so combined that they cannot be assimilated, and they pass through the system without producing any apparent effect.
In ancient and medieval times, however, other than chemical agencies were supposed to be efficient in the cure of diseases, and the primitive animistic conception of the cause of illness, and hence of the therapeutics of disease, long held sway among those who practised the medical art. Remedies were prized because of their rarity, and also because it was believed that certain spiritual or planetary influences had aided in their production and were latent in them. Besides this, the symbolism of color played a very important part in recommending the use of particular stones for special diseases. This may be noted in the case of the red or reddish stones, such as the ruby, spinel, garnet, carnelian, bloodstone, etc. These were thought to be sovereign remedies for hemorrhages of all kinds, as well as for all inflammatory diseases; they were also believed to exercise a calming influence and to remove anger and discord. The red hue of these stones was supposed to indicate their fitness for such use, upon the principle similia similibus curantur. In the same way yellow stones were prescribed for the cure of bilious disorders, for jaundice in all its forms and for other diseases of the liver. The use of green stones to relieve diseases of the eye was evidently suggested by the beneficial influence exerted by this color upon the sight. The verdant emerald represented the beautiful green fields, upon which the tired eye rests so willingly, and which exert such a soothing influence upon the sight when it has been unduly strained or fatigued. One of the earliest, probably the very earliest reference in Greek writings to the therapeutic value of gems, appears in the works of Theophrastus, who wrote in the third century before Christ. Here we are told of the beneficial effect exercised by the emerald upon the eyes.
The sapphire, the lapis-lazuli, and other blue stones, with a hue resembling the blue of the heavens, were believed to exert a tonic influence, and were supposed to counteract the wiles of the spirits of darkness and procure the aid and favor of the spirits of light and wisdom. These gems were usually looked upon as emblems of chastity, and for this reason the sapphire came to be regarded as especially appropriate for use in ecclesiastical rings. Among purple stones, the amethyst is particularly noteworthy. The well-known belief that this gem counteracted the effects of undue indulgence in intoxicating beverages is indicated by its name, derived from -- "to be intoxicated," and the privative alfa, the name thus signifying the "sobering" gem. It is not unlikely that a fancied resemblance between the prevailing hue of these stones and that of certain kinds of wine first gave rise to the name and to the idea of the peculiar virtues of the amethyst.
We have mentioned only a few of the more obvious analogies suggested by the color of gems, and we might be tempted to cite many others were it not that symbolism is always treacherous ground, since there is practically no limit to the correspondences that may be found between sensuous impressions and ideas. One great difficulty which besets any one who is trying to find a clue to guide him through the labyrinth of the medical affinities of gems is the fact that there was, from an early period, a tendency to attribute the virtues of one gem to another, probably owing to the commercial instinct which urged the dealer to praise his wares in every possible way, so that no part of his stock should fail to find a purchaser. This tendency is especially marked in the old Hindu Lapidaries, wherein it is almost impossible to find any differentiation of the stones in respect to their curative or talismanic virtues. Only the condition and perfection of the gems are made the criterion of their worth. Any given stone, if perfect, was a source of all blessings to the wearer and possessed all remedial powers, while a defective stone, or one lacking the proper lustre or color, was destined to be a source of untold misfortune to the owner.
The European writers on the medical properties of precious stones were influenced by quite different considerations; their chief aim was to represent each stone, regarded simply as a mineral substance, as being the abode of the greatest possible number of curative properties. Indeed, many of the most highly recommended electuaries contained all kinds of stones, as though the effect to be produced did not depend upon the qualities of any single stone, or class of stones, but rather upon the quantity used. In Arnobio's "Tesoro delle Gioie," (Venice, 1602, p. 254.) we have a receipt for the composition of "the most noble electuary of jacinth." This contains jacinth, emerald, sapphire, topaz, garnet, pearl, ruby, white and red coral, and amber, as well as many animal and vegetable substances, in all, thirty-four ingredients. It would indeed seem that a good dose of such a mixture should have provided a cure for "all the ills that flesh is heir to," by the simple and effective means of removing the unhappy patient to a better world. Treating of the metallic affinities of precious stones, Paracelsus (1493-1541) affirmed that the emerald was a copper stone; the carbuncle and the jasper were golden stones; the ruby and the chalcedony, silver stones. The "white sapphire" (corundum) was a stone of Jupiter, while the jacinth was a mercurial stone. Powdered jacinth mixed with an equal quantity of laudanum was recommended as a remedy for fevers resulting from "putrefaction of the air or water." This illustrates the custom of combining an inefficacious material, such as the powder of a precious stone, with another possessing genuine remedia virtue, the name of the stone appealing to the popular superstitions regarding its therapeutic powers, and thus rendering the preparation more acceptable. ("The Hematic and Alchemical writings of Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombast of Hohenheim, called Paracelsus the Great," trans. by Arthur Edward Waite, London, 1894, Vol. I, pp. 14, 225, Vol. II, p. 218.) It is related by Plutarch that when Pericles was dying of the plague, he showed to one of his friends, who was visiting him, an amulet suspended from his neck. This had been given to Pericles by the women of his household, and Plutarch cites the instance as a proof that even the strongest minds will at certain times yield to the influence of superstition. (Plutarchi, "Vitae," ed. Sinteris, Lipsiae, 1884, p. 339; Pericle, 38.) There were sceptics in ancient times who put no faith in the popular superstitions as to the curative powers of precious stones. Eusebius (ca. 264-ca. 349), in his oration on the Emperor Constantine the Great (272-337), says: (Eusebii Pamphili, "De laudibus Constantini," cap. v; in Eusebii, "Opera Omnia," ed. Migne, Parisiis, 1857, cols. 1337, 1340; Patrologiae Graecae, vol. xx.) He held that the varieties of stones so greatly admired were useless and ineffective things. They possessed no other qualities than their natural ones, and hence no efficacy to hold evils aloof; for what power can such things have either to cure disease or to avert death? Nevertheless, although he well knew this, he was in no wise opposed to their use simply as ornaments by his subjects.